📜Towards Independence ( 1945 TO 1947)

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🇮🇳 Master Table of Contents: Towards Independence (1945–1947)

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🏛️ Phase I: The Post-War Political Rebound (1945–1946)

1. The General Elections of 1945–46 🗳️

• Context: Post-WWII environment and the Government of India Act 1919.
• The Great Polarization: Congress (91% non-Muslim vote) vs. Muslim League (86.6% Muslim vote).
• The "Wave": League's clean sweep of 30 reserved Central Assembly seats.

2. The Three Popular Upsurges: Street Power 🔥

• November 21, 1945: The First INA Agitation (Dalhousie Square).
• February 11, 1946: Protests for Captain Rashid Ali.
• February 18, 1946: The Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Revolt (HMIS Talwar). ⚓
• Impact: Breaking the loyalty of the Armed Forces.

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📜 Phase II: The Last Hope for Unity (1946)

3. The Cabinet Mission Plan (March 1946) 🏛️

• Members: Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, and A.V. Alexander.
• Objectives: Reaching constitutional agreement and forming an Interim Government.

4. Constitutional & Federal Provisions ✍️

• The Federal Formula: United India with a weak Centre (Defence, Foreign Affairs, Comm).
• The Grouping System: Compulsory vs. Optional grouping (Sections A, B, and C).
• The 389-Member Constituent Assembly: Selection process and representation.
• Reasons for Rejecting a "Full-Fledged Pakistan." 🚫🇵🇰

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💣 Phase III: The Descent into Partition (Mid-1946–Early 1947)

5. The Turning Point: The Grouping Conflict ⚡

• Nehru’s 10 July Speech: The "Uncommitted" stance.
• Muslim League’s Withdrawal (29 July 1946).

6. Direct Action Day & Communal Holocaust 🩸

• August 16, 1946: The call for "Direct Action."
• The Great Calcutta Killings: Mob rule under the Suhrawardy government.
• Spillover: Noakhali, Bihar, and the Punjab Riots.
• Consequence: Seeds of partition sown and the change in Sardar Patel’s stance.

7. The Interim Government & Constituent Assembly Crisis 🏛️📉

• September 2, 1946: Formation under Nehru.
• October 26, 1946: League joins the Cabinet (Liaquat Ali as Finance Minister).
• The Deadlock: League boycotts the Constituent Assembly (Dec 1946).

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🏔️ Phase IV: The Final Settlement (1947)

8. The "Exit Plan": Attlee’s Statement 🗓️👋

• February 20, 1947: The June 1948 deadline.
• Replacement of Wavell with Lord Mountbatten.

9. The Mountbatten Plan (June 3 Plan) ✂️🗺️

• The Principle of Partition accepted.
• Immediate transfer of power on the basis of Dominion Status.
• The Boundary Commission and Referendums (NWFP, Sylhet).

10. The Indian Independence Act, 1947 ⚖️✨

• Royal Assent (July 18) and Implementation (August 15).
• Major Provisions: Two Dominions and the lapse of British Paramountcy.

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🖋️ Phase V: Historical Reflection (Historiography)

11. Responsibility for Partition: Different Lenses 🔍

• View I: The British "Divide & Rule" and Jinnah's intransigence.
• View II: Congress responsibility—Majoritarianism and the desire for a "Strong Center."

12. The Inevitability Debate ⚖️❓

• View: Partition was unavoidable due to decades of communal polarization.
• View: Partition was avoidable—the role of "Tact, Wisdom, and Audacity."

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🗳️ Elections in Central and Provincial Assemblies (1945-46)

• Announcement: Viceroy Wavell announced elections to be held between December 1945 and January 1946.
• Legal Framework: The elections to the central legislature were conducted under the terms of the Government of India Act 1919. 📜
• Executive Council: Wavell also announced the future formation of an Executive Council to manage the transition.

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🏆 Performance of Political Parties

The election results showed a clear polarization of the Indian electorate:

🚩 The Indian National Congress (INC)

• Non-Muslim Vote: Captured a massive 91% of the non-Muslim vote. 📈
• Central Assembly: Won 57 out of 102 seats.
• Provinces: Formed majorities in most provinces.
• Exceptions: Failed to get a majority in Bengal, Sindh, and Punjab.

🌙 The Muslim League (ML)

• Muslim Vote: Secured 86.6% of the Muslim votes.
• Clean Sweep: Won all 30 reserved seats in the Central Assembly. 🧹✨
• Provinces: Got majorities in Bengal and Sindh.
• Punjab Situation: A coalition was formed by the Unionist-Congress-Akali alliance to keep the League out of power.

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🔥 The Three Popular Upsurges

Three major events between 1945 and 1946 brought the British administration to a standstill:

1. Nov 21, 1945 (Calcutta): Massive protests over the INA trials at the Red Fort. Students from the Forward Bloc and Islamia College occupied Dalhousie Square. 🚩
2. Feb 11, 1946 (Calcutta): Protests against the seven-year sentence given to INA officer Rashid Ali. This saw a unique unity as Muslim League, Congress, and Communist student groups marched together. 🤝
3. Feb 18, 1946 (Bombay): The Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Revolt. 1100 naval ratings of HMIS Talwar went on strike protesting bad food and racial discrimination. ⚓⛴️

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📈 Stages and Impact of Upsurges

The Three Stages of Protest 🪜

• Stage 1: Started with student-led actions and occupation of key city squares.
• Stage 2: City-wide participation (workers join in), leading to the virtual paralysis of Calcutta and Bombay. 🛑
• Stage 3: Solidarity spreads to other parts of the country through boycotts, hartals, and processions.

Impact of the Upsurges 💥

• Mass Fearlessness: The general public acted without fear of British might.
• Loyalty Shattered: The revolt in the armed forces (RIN) had a liberating effect; the British realized they could no longer depend on the Indian military. 💂‍♂️📉
• Independence Call: Major leaders intensified the demand for immediate and total independence.

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⚖️ Limitations and Congress' Stand

⚠️ Limitations

• Short-lived: The energy of the upsurges faded quickly.
• Urban-centric: Participation was limited to big cities; it did not deeply touch the rural masses. 🏙️🚫🌾
• Infrastructure: Despite the chaos, the British administrative and repressive infrastructure remained largely intact.

🏛️ Relationship with Congress

• Individual Support: Many Congressmen joined the agitations in their personal capacity. 🚶‍♂️
• No Official Support: The INC did not officially support these violent upsurges.
• Negotiation Strategy: Congress believed the time for an "all-out struggle" had passed; their priority was negotiated settlement and constitutional transition. 🤝📖

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🇬🇧 British Concessions & The Road Ahead

The pressure from the upsurges and the loss of military loyalty forced the British to offer concessions:

• Cabinet Mission: The decision to send the mission was taken in January 1946. 🏛️
• Parliamentary Delegation: A group of British MPs visited in November 1946.
• INA Trial Softening: Announced that only those accused of murder or brutal treatment would be tried. Sentences of the first batch were remitted in Jan 1947. ⚖️🔓
• Troop Withdrawal: Indian soldiers were withdrawn from Indo-China and Indonesia by February 1947.
• Attlee's Declaration: In February 1947, PM Clement Attlee declared that the British would leave India no later than June 1948. 🗓️👋

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🏛️ CABINET MISSION PLAN

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👥 The Mission Members

Visited India in March 1946.

• Chairman: Pethick Lawrence 💂‍♂️
• Member: Stafford Cripps (familiar from the 1942 mission) 📜
• Member: A.V. Alexander ⚓

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🏗️ Background & Objectives

The Deadlock 🚦

• Congress: Wanted a strong central government with minimal powers to provinces. 🇮🇳
• Muslim League: Sought strong safeguards and maximum autonomy for Muslims. 🌙
• Deadlock: Because they couldn't agree, the Mission issued its own proposals in May 1946.

Primary Objectives 🎯

1. Reach an agreement on the creation of a Constitution.
2. Set up a Constitution-making body (Constituent Assembly).
3. Form an Interim Government with support from major parties.

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✍️ Major Provisions: Constituent Assembly

The Mission recommended a 389-member body:

• Election Method: Members from provinces were to be elected by provincial assemblies via proportional representation. 🗳️
• Princely States: Members were to be nominated by the Princes. 🤴

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⚖️ The Federal Formula (United India)

The Mission rejected the partition of India and suggested a Federal Structure:

• Provincial Autonomy: Provinces would have significant independence. 🏘️
• Weak Centre: The common center would control only Defence, Communication, and External Affairs. ⚔️📡🌍
• Residuary Powers: All other powers would belong to the Provinces.
• Communal Safeguard: Decisions on communal issues required a simple majority of members present and voting from both communities. ⚖️
• Three-Tier Structure: Executive and Legislatures at Provincial, Sectional, and Union levels.

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🧩 The Grouping System

To safeguard minority autonomy, provinces were divided into three sections:

• Section A (Hindu Majority): Madras, Bombay, Uttar Pradesh (UP), Bihar, Central Provinces (CP), and Orissa. 🛕
• Section B (Muslim Majority - NW): Punjab, NWFP, and Sindh. 🏔️
• Section C (Muslim Majority - NE): Bengal and Assam. 🌊

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🚫 Why "Full Pakistan" was Rejected

The Mission gave specific reasons for refusing a separate nation:

1. Large Non-Muslim Population: A separate Pakistan would still have 38% non-Muslims in the NW and 48% in the NE. 📉
2. Regional Ties: Partitioning Bengal and Punjab would jeopardize deep-rooted regional and cultural ties. 💔
3. Logistical Nightmare: It would create massive economic/administrative problems and split communication between West and East Pakistan. 🚂🚫

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🗣️ Conflict of Interpretation

The "Grouping Clause" became the biggest point of contention:

🚩 Congress Interpretation

• Believed Grouping was Optional. A province could choose not to join a section initially.
• Saw it as a victory for a "United India" because there was only one Constituent Assembly.

🌙 Muslim League Interpretation

• The Mission later clarified that Grouping was Compulsory.
• The League believed this compulsory grouping made the future creation of Pakistan implied. 🇵🇰🔜

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🌅 Lecture 80: Towards Independence

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📉 Why the British Decided to Transfer Power?

By 1946, the British realized that maintaining the "Jewel in the Crown" was no longer sustainable. Several factors converged:

• 🌍 Shift in Global Balance of Power: Post-WWII, the US and USSR emerged as superpowers, both favoring decolonization.
• decolonization commission under UN
• Britain was in Bank corrupts, almost 300 million dollars
• lack of manpower, almost 20 lakh young youth was died in the world war.
• 🇬🇧 Exhausted Britain: The war had a devastating economic impact on the UK; they lacked the resources to govern a rebellious India.
• 🗳️ Change in British Politics: The victory of the Labour Party (Attlee) replaced Churchill’s hardline imperialism with a pro-independence stance.
• change of thinking for white man's burden.
• 🔥 Popular Upsurges: The RIN Revolt, INA trials, and massive urban protests showed that the "steel frame" of British control was cracking.
• 🌾 Peasant Movements: Widespread agrarian unrest made the countryside ungovernable. Tebhaga movement in AP under **jote dar and burger dar.
• 💂 Military/Admin Leanings: Increased nationalist sentiment within the Indian police and army meant the British could no longer rely on them to suppress their own people.
• Nationalist leaning =
• Determination of the Indians
• Limitation of British policy in India that is Divide and rule
• 📊 1946 Elections: Proved the complete polarization of the country, leaving no middle ground for British mediation.

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🗣️ Key Perspectives on the End of Empire

🖋️ B.R. Tomlinson

He argued that Viceroy Linlithgow and the British Cabinet initially used the Congress-League rivalry as a strategic weapon 🛡️ to stall nationalist demands. However, this eventually backfired as the communal divide became uncontrollable.

💂 Lord Wavell (October 1946)

In a moment of stark honesty, Wavell wired London:

"Our time in India is limited and our power to control events almost gone." 📉🛑

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⏳ Timeline: The Cabinet Mission Stalemate (1946)

The journey from acceptance to the final collapse:

• June 6: The Muslim League accepts the plan (seeing "implied Pakistan" in the grouping clause). ✅🌙
• June 24: The Congress accepts the plan (interpreting grouping as optional). ✅🚩
• July 1946: Elections held for the Constituent Assembly. 🗳️
• July 7: Nehru’s "Fatehabad" Speech to the AICC. He stated that Congress was "uncommitted" to the grouping and would likely change it in the assembly. 🗣️⚡
• July 29: Citing Nehru's speech as a betrayal of the plan's spirit, the League withdraws its acceptance. ❌🌙

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⚖️ Merits & Demerits of the Cabinet Mission Plan

✅ Merits

• Democratic Principle: Abandoned the old "weightage" system; the Assembly was based on population strength. 👥
• United India: Explicitly rejected the creation of Pakistan and envisioned an All-India Union. 🇮🇳
• Sovereignty: Guaranteed no external influence; Europeans were excluded from the Constituent Assembly, making it a "mistress in her own house." 🏰✨

❌ Demerits

• Minority Neglect: While providing for Muslims, it largely ignored other minorities, such as the Sikhs in Punjab. 👳‍♂️🚫
• Vague Grouping: The province-wise grouping was ill-defined and subject to contradictory interpretations. 🧩❓
• Hectic Procedure: The three-tier structure (Provincial, Sectional, Union) was administratively a nightmare. 🐢💨

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❓ Confusion & Conflict: The Final Breaking Points

1. The Religious Basis of Grouping 🛕🕌

Congress vehemently opposed dividing provinces into groups based purely on Hindu/Muslim majorities. They felt this undermined the very idea of a secular nation.

2. The Princely States Dilemma 👑

The Mission suggested Princely States could remain independent or join the Union. Nehru and the Congress rejected this, fearing the "Balkanization" of India (splitting into hundreds of tiny countries).

3. The Shift to Partition 🗺️✂️

Once the original May plan was rejected, the Mission briefly proposed a new plan in June 1946 that flirted with dividing India into a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan. This was the final blow to the dream of a united transition.

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🏮 - Direct Action Day 16 AUG 1946

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⚡ The Turning Point: Nehru's Speech

The Cabinet Mission Plan relied on "Grouping of Provinces" to satisfy the Muslim League.

• Nehru’s Speech (10 July 1946): Nehru stated that Congress was not bound by the plan and rejected the idea that provinces must join a group. 🗣️🚫
• Impact: This "squashed" the mission's plan. Jinnah viewed this as Congress treachery.
• League’s Reaction: On 29 July, the Muslim League rescinded its approval. ❌🌙
• Jinnah’s Ultimatum: "We do not want war. If you want war we accept your offer unhesitatingly. We will either have a divided India or a destroyed India." ⚔️🗺️

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💣 Direct Action Day (16 August 1946)

Jinnah called for a general strike (Hartal) to assert the demand for Pakistan.

• The Bengal Holiday: Governor Frederick Burrows declared a public holiday on request of CM Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy. 🗓️🚩
• Controversy: Congress protested, arguing a holiday would give 'idle folks' the chance to enforce strikes through violence. They accused the League of "communal politics." 🛑🤝

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🩸 The "Great Calcutta Killings"

• Morning (16 Aug): Excitement and tension reported at Lalbazar Police HQ. 🚨
• The Rally: At 2 PM, Khwaja Nizamuddin claimed only Muslims were being attacked and were acting in self-defense. Suhrawardy indirectly promised no police action against armed Muslims. 🗣️🔥
• Mob Rule: Trucks carrying armed gangsters attacked shops.
  • Casualties: 4,000 dead and 100,000 homeless within 72 hours. 📉🏚️
• Viceroy Rule: On 21 August, Bengal was put under direct rule, and 5 battalions of British and Gurkha troops were deployed. 💂‍♂️

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🌱 Consequences: Seeds of Partition

• Spread of Violence: Riots spread to Noakhali (Bengal), Bihar, UP, and Punjab (Rawalpindi). 🗺️🔥
• Change of Heart: Seeing the brutal violence, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became one of the first leaders (Nov 1946) to accept that Partition was inevitable to stop the bloodshed. ✂️🇮🇳

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🏛️ Interim Government (1946-1947)

• Formation: 2nd September 1946 (Initially only Congress).
• League Entry: Lord Wavell convinced the League to join on 26 October 1946, even though they hadn't given up "Direct Action." 🤝🌙

📋 Ministers of Interim Government

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📜 Crisis in the Constituent Assembly

• Strength: 389 members.
• First Meeting: December 1946. 🗓️
• League Boycott: The Muslim League refused to attend, using their position in the government only to fight for Pakistan. 🚫
• The Final Break (Feb 1947): Nine Congress members demanded the League's resignation from the Cabinet. The League countered by demanding the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly. 🏚️🛑

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🏁 ATTLEE'S STATEMENT AND MOUNTBATTEN PLAN .

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📢 Attlee's Statement (February 20, 1947)

Prime Minister Clement Attlee issued a historic declaration to break the deadlock:

• 📅 Deadline: Set a fixed date for the British to leave India—June 30, 1948.
• 🤴 Princely States: British powers and obligations would lapse; they would not be transferred to successor governments.
• 💂 New Viceroy: Lord Mountbatten was appointed to replace Wavell to oversee the transfer.

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🌓 Reactions to the Statement

🚩 The Congress

• Accepted the provision of transferring power to more than one center.
• Reason: It allowed the Constituent Assembly to frame a constitution for the areas it represented and offered a way out of the deadlock with the League. ✅

🌙 The Muslim League

• Launched a civil disobedience movement in Punjab to overthrow the coalition government (Unionist-Congress-Akali), aiming to secure their claim before the deadline. ⚔️

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🏔️ The Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947)

Mountbatten realized that waiting until 1948 would result in a total civil war. He proposed an early transfer of power.

Key Points of the Plan:

• ✂️ Partition Principle: The British government officially accepted the partition of India.
• 🏰 Dominion Status: Both successor states (India and Pakistan) would initially be Dominions.
• 🗳️ Self-Determination: Provincial assemblies of Punjab and Bengal would meet in two groups (Hindu/Muslim) to vote on partition. A simple majority would trigger it.
• 📍 Referendums: Decisions for NWFP and the Sylhet district of Bengal would be made via public referendum.
• 🤴 Princely States: Could join India or Pakistan based on geographical contiguity and people's wishes. The option to remain independent was ruled out. 🚫

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⚖️ Indian Independence Act, 1947

Based on the Mountbatten Plan, the British Parliament passed the Act on July 5, 1947.

• Implementation: August 15, 1947. 🗓️✨
• Governance: Till new constitutions were framed, both countries would be governed by the Government of India Act, 1935.
• Governor-Generals: Each dominion would have its own (Mountbatten for India, Jinnah for Pakistan).

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🗳️ Implementation: Voting & Referendums

• Partition Votes: Both Bengal and Punjab assemblies voted for partition.
• Sylhet: Referendum resulted in joining East Bengal (Pakistan).
• NWFP: Referendum decided in favor of Pakistan.
• Sindh & Baluchistan: Decided to stay with Pakistan. 🇵🇰

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🔍 Historiography: Responsibility for Partition

View 1: British & Muslim League are Responsible 🇬🇧🌙

• Early nationalist historians blame the British policy of "Divide and Rule" and Jinnah's stubbornness.
• Congress is seen as a victim of communal reactionary forces it couldn't control.

View 2: Congress bears Large Responsibility 🚩📉

• Majoritarianism: Historians like Ayesha Jalal argue that Congress's culture was majoritarian and they refused to share power.
• Strong State: Nehru and Patel preferred a compact, centralized India over a loose, confederated India shared with the League. They "chose" partition to have a strong central government.

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⚖️ Debate: Was Partition Inevitable?

🚫 View: Partition was Unavoidable

• The cumulative effect of "Divide and Rule," separate electorates, and the fanaticism of the League made it natural.
• Hindu Extremism: Actions by groups like the Hindu Mahasabha and leaders like V.D. Savarkar (asserting India is for Hindus only) fueled Muslim fears and Jinnah’s propaganda.

✅ View: Partition was Avoidable

• Some argue Jinnah used the "Pakistan" demand only as a bargaining tool for political rights.
• Lack of Wisdom: Critics argue that if Congress leaders had displayed more "tact, wisdom, and audacity," the "vivisection of the motherland" could have been prevented. 🖋️💔

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📜 - Historiography of Partition

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🤝 Responsibility for Partition: View I (British & League)

Early nationalist versions of history assign exclusive responsibility to the colonial power and the separatist movement.

• 🇬🇧 British "Divide and Rule": The British policy of creating separate electorates fostered communal identities and prevented national integration.
• 🌙 Jinnah's Stubbornness: Muhammad Ali Jinnah is often portrayed as being uncompromising, and the Muslim League as being under a "communal and reactionary grip."
• 📉 Congress' Failure: This view admits that the Congress was unable to successfully reach out to the Muslim masses, eventually recognizing partition as a reluctant result of the prevailing circumstances.

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🚩 Responsibility for Partition: View II (Congress)

Recent historiography suggests that the Congress party also bears a significant portion of the responsibility.

• 🏛️ Majoritarian Culture: Historians argue that the Congress ideology was majoritarian, insisting that the majority party's viewpoint must always win out, which alienated minorities.
• 🖋️ Ayesha Jalal's Perspective: The prominent historian claims that leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Patel were proponents of a strong, centralized state.
• 🧠 Preference for Power: They preferred a compact and centralized India (even if smaller) over a loose, decentralized "confederated India" shared with the Muslim League. In this sense, they "chose" partition to secure a strong center. 🏗️⚡

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🚫 Was Partition Inevitable? View 1: Unavoidable

This perspective sees the division of the nation as a lamentable but natural outcome of historical forces.

• 🧩 Segregationist Philosophy: The communalism of the Muslim League succeeded in pressuring the Indian National Congress into accepting partition.
• 🛕 Prevalence of Hindu Ideology: The Hindu Mahasabha and V.D. Savarkar fueled the League's fanaticism by openly declaring that India was "Hindustan" and that Muslims must accept status as a minority in a Hindu-ascendant state. 🚩
• 🎌 Hindu Revivalism: The use of Hindu religious symbols by Swadeshi leaders politicized the social division, making Muslim mobilization easier.
• 🕵️ Jinnah's Deftness: Jinnah is viewed as a "cunning politician" who handled political situations with skill, pulling "somersaults" to avoid adversaries.
• 🗣️ Nehru's Analysis: Nehru attributed the rise of communalism to the League's ability to instill dread in the Muslim masses by delaying the development of a strong Muslim middle class. 📉😨

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✅ Was Partition Inevitable? View 2: Avoidable

This view questions the legitimacy of partition, seeing it as a series of missed opportunities and errors.

• ❓ Legitimacy Questioned: Some historians believe the "vivisection" of the subcontinent was regrettable but preventable.
• 🏗️ Colonial Construction: Recent research suggests the "colonial government constructed a Muslim community in its own image," turning a fragmented population into a "country" or "juridical entity." 💂‍♂️🎨
• 📉 Critique of Congress Leaders: Many Indian authors argue that the division could have been prevented if Congress leadership had displayed "sufficient wisdom, tact, and audacity." 🖋️💔

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