UPSC CSEMAINSGS 1MOERN HISTORY17)The Swadeshi Movement (1905–1911

17)The Swadeshi Movement (1905–1911

🇮🇳 The Swadeshi Movement (1905–1911) 🇮🇳

1. Background: Growing Hostility of the British Raj 🛡️

  • Failure of Petitions: By 1900, nationalists realized that "praying and petitioning" the government was futile. Modest demands for jobs and legislative reforms were ignored.
  • The "Un-British" Rule: Appeals for a just British rule fell on deaf ears. The Indian Councils Act of 1892 provided only "paltry" reforms, satisfying no one.
  • Lord Curzon’s Reactionary Policies:
    • Calcutta Corporation Act (1899): Reduced the number of elected Indian members to satisfy European business interests. 🏢
    • Indian Universities Act (1904): Curtailed the autonomy of Calcutta University to prevent it from becoming a "factory producing revolutionaries." 🎓

2. The Partition of Bengal (October 1905) ✂️

  • Imperialist Pretext: Curzon claimed the province (pop. 80 million) was too large to manage and needed "administrative readjustment."
  • The Actual Motive: To crush the rising tide of nationalism in Bengal.
    • Risley’s View: "Bengal united is a power. Bengal divided will pull in several different ways."
  • The Divide:
    • Eastern Bengal & Assam: Muslim majority (Capital: Dacca).
    • Western Bengal, Bihar & Orissa: Hindu majority.
    • Language Divide: Aimed to make Bengalis a minority in their own province by mixing them with Hindi and Oriya speakers.

3. Launch of the Swadeshi Movement 📢

  • Formal Launch: August 7, 1905, at Town Hall, Calcutta. 🏛️
  • The Strategy: Use of Boycott (of foreign goods) and Swadeshi (use of domestic goods).
  • Congress Response (The Internal Rift):
    • Moderates (G.K. Gokhale): Backed the movement but wanted to confine it to Bengal only.
    • Extremists (Tilak, Lajpat Rai): Wanted a full-fledged mass struggle across all of India. 🗺️
      • Tilak (Bombay/Pune), Chidambaram Pillai (Madras), Syed Haider Raza (Delhi), Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab).

4. Dimensions of "Constructive Swadeshi" (Atmashakti) 🛠️

The movement wasn't just negative (boycott) but also constructive (self-reliance).

A. Economic Dimension 🧴

  • Emergence of Swadeshi textile mills, soap/match factories, and banks.
  • V.O. Chidambaram Pillai: Started the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company in Tuticorin. 🚢
  • P.C. Ray: Established the Bengal Chemical Factory.

B. Social Dimension & Education 📖

  • National Council of Education (1906): To organize a system of education on national lines and under national control.
  • Bengal National College: Inspired by Tagore’s Shantiniketan; Aurobindo Ghosh was its first principal.
  • Arbitration Courts: Swadesh Bandabh Samiti settled 523 disputes through arbitration. ⚖️

C. Cultural Dimension 🎨

  • Painting: Abanindranath Tagore broke Victorian naturalism, taking inspiration from Ajanta, Mughal, and Rajput art. Nandalal Bose became a major imprint.
  • Literature: Rabindranath Tagore wrote "Amar Sonar Bangla" (now the national anthem of Bangladesh). Subramania Bharati wrote Sudesha Geetham in Tamil. ✍️

5. Participation and Government Response 👮‍♂️

  • Participation: Active involvement of Students and Women (urban middle class). Labour Class organized strikes. Muslims had limited participation (the Muslim League was formed in 1906).
  • Government "Carrot and Stick" Policy: 🥕🦯
    • Repression: Mildly repress Extremists to frighten Moderates.
    • Conciliation: Win over Moderates with small concessions (hints of reforms).
    • Suppression: Once Moderates were isolated, suppress Extremists with full might.
  • Repressive Acts (1907-08): Seditious Meetings Act, Criminal Law Amendment Act, Explosive Substances Act, and Newspaper (Incitement to Offenses) Act.

6. The Surat Split (1907) ⚡

  • 1905 (Banaras): Compromise session under Gokhale.
  • 1906 (Calcutta): Under Dadabhai Naoroji, Congress adopted "Swaraj" as the goal to prevent a split.
  • 1907 (Surat): The final split occurred. Extremists wanted Tilak or Lajpat Rai as President; Moderates chose Rash Behari Ghosh. Rigid positions on Swadeshi/Boycott resolutions led to the division.

7. Failure and Significance 📉

Reasons for Failure:

  1. Severe Repression: Arrests of leaders and suppression of revolutionaries.
  2. No Formal Structure: Lack of a disciplined party organization.
  3. Leaderless: By 1908, Tilak was in jail, while Aurobindo Ghosh and B.C. Pal retired from politics.
  4. Limited Social Base: Failed to mobilize the peasantry.

Significance:

  • Shift in Approach: Moved from "Prayer and Petition" to Direct Political Action.
  • Cultural Flourish: Massive growth in Bengali literature and Indian art.
  • Social Base: Brought students and women into the mainstream struggle for the first time. ✊

📚 Historiography & Opinions

  • Sumit Sarkar: Noted the lack of "Bourgeois" (merchant) support; the movement was led by the landholding intelligentsia.
  • Rabindranath Tagore: Withdrew in 1907 due to rising communal tensions; his novel Ghare Baire offers a dark vision of this era. 🏚️
  • Ranajit Guha: Highlighted the use of Coercion (Physical and Social) as a means of mobilization.

🔍 UPSC Special: Exam Pointers

📌 Prelims Pointers:

  1. Dates: Aug 7, 1905 (Swadeshi launch); Oct 16, 1905 (Partition day).
  2. Personalities: First principal of Bengal National College (Aurobindo Ghosh); Founder of Swadeshi Steam Navigation (V.O.C. Pillai).
  3. Organizations: National Council of Education (1906); Swadesh Bandabh Samiti (Ashwini Kumar Datta).
  4. Literature: "Amar Sonar Bangla" (Tagore); "Sudesha Geetham" (Subramania Bharati).
  5. Acts: Be ready to arrange the Seditious Meetings Act (1907) and Indian Universities Act (1904) in chronological order.

📝 Mains Related:

  1. Analytical: "The Swadeshi movement was the first truly mass movement, yet it failed to reach the heart of India - the peasantry." Discuss the limitations of the social base of the movement.
  2. Cultural: Evaluate the impact of the Swadeshi movement on the development of national education and indigenous art in India.
  3. Ideological: Compare and contrast the methods of the Moderates and Extremists during the anti-partition agitation.
  4. Historiography: Discuss Ranajit Guha's concept of "Social Coercion" as a tool for political mobilization during the Swadeshi era.

This comprehensive analysis covers the Aftermath of the Swadeshi Movement, focusing on the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 and the Annulment of the Partition of Bengal in 1911.

📜 Lecture 56: Aftermath of Swadeshi

The Swadeshi Movement (1905-1908) left the British Raj shaken. To restore stability, the British adopted a "Carrot and Stick" policy—repressing the extremists while trying to "rally" the moderates and elites through constitutional reforms.

1. The Prelude: Rise of Communal Politics (1906) 🕌

Before the reforms were enacted, the British encouraged a separate political identity for Muslims to counter the Congress.

  • Shimla Deputation (October 1906): A group of Muslim elites led by Agha Khan met Lord Minto.
    • Demands: Separate electorates for Muslims and representation in excess of their numerical strength based on their "contribution to the defense of the empire."
  • Formation of Muslim League (December 1906): Initially floated by Nawab Salimullah of Dacca, along with Nawabs Mohsin-ul-Mulk and Waqar-ul-Mulk.
    • Objective: To preach loyalty to the British Empire and keep the Muslim intelligentsia away from the Indian National Congress. 🚩

2. The Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act of 1909) 🏛️

Named after John Morley (Secretary of State) and Lord Minto (Viceroy), these reforms aimed to win over the Moderates and the Westernized elite.

A. Key Features of the Act:

  • Increased Size of Councils: The number of members in the Central Legislative Council was raised from 16 to 60. Provincial councils also saw an increase (though not uniform). 📈
  • Official vs. Non-Official Majority:
    • Center: Retained an official (British) majority.
    • Provinces: Allowed a non-official majority (but many of these were nominated by the British, not elected).
  • Indirect Elections: A multi-tiered system where local bodies elected an electoral college, which elected provincial members, who then elected central members. 🗳️
  • Enhanced Functions: Members could now ask supplementary questions and move resolutions on the budget (though they couldn't vote on it entirely).
  • Executive Council Entry: For the first time, Indians were associated with the Executive Councils of the Viceroy and Governors.
    • 🌟 Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Indian to join the Viceroy’s Executive Council (as a Law Member).

B. The "Separate Electorate" (Communalism Legalized) ⚔️

  • The Act introduced Separate Electorates for Muslims, meaning Muslim members would be elected only by Muslim voters.
  • Impact: This "legalized communalism" and drove a wedge between the two communities.
  • Lord Minto is consequently known as the "Father of Communal Electorate." 🎖️

3. Evaluation and Assessment of the 1909 Reforms ⚖️

  • The Morley Disclaimer: John Morley stated that "Colonial self-government" (Dominion Status) was not suitable for India. 🚫
  • Mere Advisory Bodies: The legislative councils remained advisory with no real power over the executive.
  • Divide and Rule: The primary purpose was to divide the nationalist ranks rather than grant genuine democracy.

4. Annulment of the Partition of Bengal (1911) 🔄

The British realized that the Partition of 1905 had backfired by fueling revolutionary terrorism and unity among Bengalis.

  • Delhi Durbar (1911): Held to celebrate the coronation of King George V.
  • Major Decisions:
    1. Partition Annulled: Bengal was reunited (mostly to control revolutionary activities).
    2. Capital Shift: The capital of British India was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi. 🏛️
    3. New Provinces: Bihar and Orissa were taken out of Bengal. Assam was restored as a separate province.

🎯 UPSC Exam Pointers

📌 For Prelims:

  • Satyendra Prasad Sinha: The first Indian in the Viceroy's Executive Council.
  • Lord Minto: Known as the "Father of Communal Electorates."
  • Shimla Deputation (1906): Led by Agha Khan; led to the formation of the Muslim League.
  • Delhi Durbar (1911): King George V announced the annulment and the shift of the capital to Delhi.
  • Council size: Increased from 16 to 60 (Central).

📝 For Mains:

  • The Policy of "Rallying the Moderates": Analyze how the British used the 1909 reforms to isolate the Extremists from the Moderates.
  • Communalism: Discuss how the Indian Councils Act of 1909 sowed the seeds of the eventual Partition of India in 1947 by providing separate electorates.
  • Nature of Reforms: Critically evaluate why the 1909 reforms failed to satisfy the political aspirations of the Indian nationalists (Focus on "indirect elections" and "advisory nature").
  • Capital Shift: Why did the British shift the capital from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911? (Hint: To escape the hotbed of revolutionary activities in Bengal).

📜 Aftermath of Swadeshi

The Swadeshi Movement (1905-1908) left the British Raj shaken. To restore stability, the British adopted a "Carrot and Stick" policy—repressing the extremists while trying to "rally" the moderates and elites through constitutional reforms.

1. The Prelude: Rise of Communal Politics (1906) 🕌

Before the reforms were enacted, the British encouraged a separate political identity for Muslims to counter the Congress.

  • Shimla Deputation (October 1906): A group of Muslim elites led by Agha Khan met Lord Minto.
    • Demands: Separate electorates for Muslims and representation in excess of their numerical strength based on their "contribution to the defense of the empire."
  • Formation of Muslim League (December 1906): Initially floated by Nawab Salimullah of Dacca, along with Nawabs Mohsin-ul-Mulk and Waqar-ul-Mulk.
    • Objective: To preach loyalty to the British Empire and keep the Muslim intelligentsia away from the Indian National Congress. 🚩

2. The Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act of 1909) 🏛️

Named after John Morley (Secretary of State) and Lord Minto (Viceroy), these reforms aimed to win over the Moderates and the Westernized elite.

A. Key Features of the Act:

  • Increased Size of Councils: The number of members in the Central Legislative Council was raised from 16 to 60. Provincial councils also saw an increase (though not uniform). 📈
  • Official vs. Non-Official Majority:
    • Center: Retained an official (British) majority.
    • Provinces: Allowed a non-official majority (but many of these were nominated by the British, not elected).
  • Indirect Elections: A multi-tiered system where local bodies elected an electoral college, which elected provincial members, who then elected central members. 🗳️
  • Enhanced Functions: Members could now ask supplementary questions and move resolutions on the budget (though they couldn't vote on it entirely).
  • Executive Council Entry: For the first time, Indians were associated with the Executive Councils of the Viceroy and Governors.
    • 🌟 Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Indian to join the Viceroy’s Executive Council (as a Law Member).

B. The "Separate Electorate" (Communalism Legalized) ⚔️

  • The Act introduced Separate Electorates for Muslims, meaning Muslim members would be elected only by Muslim voters.
  • Impact: This "legalized communalism" and drove a wedge between the two communities.
  • Lord Minto is consequently known as the "Father of Communal Electorate." 🎖️

3. Evaluation and Assessment of the 1909 Reforms ⚖️

  • The Morley Disclaimer: John Morley stated that "Colonial self-government" (Dominion Status) was not suitable for India. 🚫
  • Mere Advisory Bodies: The legislative councils remained advisory with no real power over the executive.
  • Divide and Rule: The primary purpose was to divide the nationalist ranks rather than grant genuine democracy.

4. Annulment of the Partition of Bengal (1911) 🔄

The British realized that the Partition of 1905 had backfired by fueling revolutionary terrorism and unity among Bengalis.

  • Delhi Durbar (1911): Held to celebrate the coronation of King George V.
  • Major Decisions:
    1. Partition Annulled: Bengal was reunited (mostly to control revolutionary activities).
    2. Capital Shift: The capital of British India was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi. 🏛️
    3. New Provinces: Bihar and Orissa were taken out of Bengal. Assam was restored as a separate province.

🎯 UPSC Exam Pointers

📌 For Prelims:

  • Satyendra Prasad Sinha: The first Indian in the Viceroy's Executive Council.
  • Lord Minto: Known as the "Father of Communal Electorates."
  • Shimla Deputation (1906): Led by Agha Khan; led to the formation of the Muslim League.
  • Delhi Durbar (1911): King George V announced the annulment and the shift of the capital to Delhi.
  • Council size: Increased from 16 to 60 (Central).

📝 For Mains:

  • The Policy of "Rallying the Moderates": Analyze how the British used the 1909 reforms to isolate the Extremists from the Moderates.
  • Communalism: Discuss how the Indian Councils Act of 1909 sowed the seeds of the eventual Partition of India in 1947 by providing separate electorates.
  • Nature of Reforms: Critically evaluate why the 1909 reforms failed to satisfy the political aspirations of the Indian nationalists (Focus on "indirect elections" and "advisory nature").
  • Capital Shift: Why did the British shift the capital from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911? (Hint: To escape the hotbed of revolutionary activities in Bengal).
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