UPSC CSEMAINSGS 1MOERN HISTORY📜 Table of Contents

📜 Table of Contents

📜 Table of Contents

1. Emergence of Gandhi

  • Gandhi in South Africa (1893–1914) 🌍

2. Arrival of Gandhi in India (1915)

  • i. Champaran Satyagraha (1917): First Civil Disobedience in India 🌿
  • ii. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): First Hunger Strike 🏭
  • iii. Kheda Satyagraha (1918): First Non-Cooperation 🌾
  • iv. Rowlatt Act (1919): The "Black Act" ⚖️
  • v. Non-Cooperation: Beginnings of the movement

3. The Rowlatt Act (1919) & Aftermath

  • Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919) 🩸
  • Hunter Committee of Inquiry (1919) 🔍
  • Government of India Act 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) 🏛️

4. Non-Cooperation & Khilafat Movement (1919–1924)

  • Khilafat Movement: The Khalifa issue 🕌
  • Launch of Non-Cooperation Movement (1920) 🚫
  • Nagpur Session of INC (1920): Changes in Congress constitution 📜
  • Chauri Chaura Incident (1922): Withdrawal of the movement 🔥

🇮🇳 The Emergence of Gandhi (1869–1915) 🕊️

  • Birth: October 2, 1869, at Porbandar, Gujarat.
  • Parents: Putlibai (mother) and Karamchand Gandhi (father).
  • Early Marriage: Married Kasturba Kapadia at the age of 13.
  • Education: Left for London in September 1888 to study Law.
  • Return: Passed the bar on June 10, 1891, and returned to India.
  • The Turning Point: In 1892, he took on a year-long case in South Africa for Dada Abdullah.

2. The South African "Laboratory" (1892–1914) 🌍

Gandhi’s political techniques were forged in the crucible of racial discrimination in South Africa.

👥 Categories of Indians in South Africa:

  1. Indentured Labor: Migrant workers from South India.
  2. The Merchants: Mostly Memon Muslims.
  3. Ex-indentured Laborers: Those who stayed after their contracts ended.

🚫 Disabilities faced by Indians:

  • Denied the right to vote.
  • Restricted residency (prescribed locations only).
  • Curfews (Asians/Africans couldn't stay out after 9 PM).

🛠️ Phases of Struggle:

  • Moderate Phase (1894–1906): Relied on petitions and memorials. He set up the Natal Indian Congress and started the paper 📰 Indian Opinion.
  • Passive Resistance/Satyagraha (1906–1914):
    • 1906: Satyagraha against Registration Certificates (The "Black Act").
    • Natal: Campaign against the Poll Tax.
    • 1912: Campaign against the invalidation of Indian marriages.

3. The Gandhian Ideology: Key Pillars 🧘‍♂️

📚 Factors Influencing His Thought:

  • Socio-Religious Milieu: The outlook of his parents and his native place.
  • Traditions: Values of Vaishnavism and the non-violence/austerity of Jainism.
  • Texts: The Bhagavata Gita (his spiritual dictionary) and the Gospels (Sermon on the Mount).
  • Thinkers: Tolstoy (The Kingdom of God is Within You), Thoreau (Civil Disobedience), and Ruskin (Unto This Last).
  • Own Experience: Gandhi was primarily a "man of action."

🛡️ Satyagraha (True Force):

  • It is not merely a political tactic but a philosophy of life.
  • Gandhi vs. Passive Resistance: Passive resistance is the "weapon of the weak" and doesn't exclude violence; Satyagraha is the "weapon of the strongest" and excludes violence in any shape. ⚔️🚫

🕊️ Non-Violence (Ahimsa):

  • Defined as "complete innocence" and "absence of ill-will."
  • Critic's View: Some argue Gandhi used non-violence to control mass movements from above, preventing them from turning into violent social revolutions that would hurt business/landlord interests.

4. Specific Social & Economic Views ✍️

📖 Hind Swaraj (1909):

  • Real Enemy: Not the British, but Modern Western Civilization.
  • Critique of Technology: He criticized Railways for spreading plague and causing famines by encouraging food grain exports.
  • Swaraj: A state of life following traditional Indian civilization, uncorrupted by modernity.

👔 Economics & Swadeshi:

  • Swadeshi: Replacing foreign machine-made goods with Indian handmade cloth (Khadi).
  • Trusteeship: Advocated that Capitalists should act as "trustees" for workers. He abhorred class struggle and preferred interdependence between capital and labor.

🤝 Social Order & Varna:

  • Accepted the Varna System as a functional division of labor but was strictly against its rigidness and hierarchy.
  • Believed all fruits of labor are identical, regardless of occupation.

🎓 UPSC Exam Focus

📌 Prelims Pointers:

  1. Organizations: Natal Indian Congress (1894).
  2. Newspaper: Indian Opinion (Started in South Africa).
  3. Book: Hind Swaraj was written in 1909 (on a ship from London to South Africa).
  4. Influence: Thoreau influenced his views on Civil Disobedience; Ruskin influenced his views on the dignity of labor.
  5. Return to India: Gandhi returned permanently in January 1915.

📝 Mains Related (History Optional/GS-I):

  • Leadership Style: Analyze how South Africa served as a "laboratory" for Gandhi to test his techniques before applying them in India.
  • Religion and Politics: Discuss Gandhi's conviction that religion must permeate all activities of men, including political action (e.g., his use of the Khilafat issue).
  • Critique of Modernity: Evaluate Gandhi's views in Hind Swaraj—were they "reactionary" or a deep philosophical critique of industrialization?
  • Nationalism: Note Gandhi's dismissal of the idea that Indian nationhood was a British creation; he traced it back to ancient Indian heritage.

.

🇮🇳 The Arrival of Gandhi & Early Regional Movements (1915–1918) 🕊️

1. The Return and Preparation (1915–1916) 🏡

  • The Return: Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915.
  • Gokhale’s Advice: His political mentor, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, advised him to spend a year traveling across British India to understand the ground reality before entering active politics. 🚆
  • First Appearance: His first major public speech was at the opening ceremony of the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in 1916, where he famously asked the elite audience to look at the plight of the poor.

2. The Trilogy of Regional Struggles 📍

Gandhi led three localized movements that established him as a "Mahatma" and a mass leader.

A. Champaran Satyagraha (1917) — First Civil Disobedience 🌿

  • The Issue: The Tinkathia System, where European planters forced peasants to grow Indigo on 3/20th of their land.
  • The Call: Local man Rajkumar Shukla invited Gandhi to look into the farmers' plight.
  • The Action: Gandhi conducted an enquiry but was ordered to leave by authorities. He violated Section 144 (Civil Disobedience) and refused to leave.
  • Outcome: The government withdrew the case and formed an inquiry committee. The Tinkathia system was abolished.
  • Leaders: Brajkishore Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Ramnavmi Prasad.
  • ✨ Significance: For his success, Rabindranath Tagore bestowed the title "Mahatma" upon him.

B. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) — First Hunger Strike 🏭

  • The Issue: A conflict between mill owners and workers over the "Plague Bonus." In 1917, a plague outbreak killed 10% of Ahmedabad's population. When it subsided, owners wanted to stop the bonus, while workers demanded a 50% dearness allowance due to wartime inflation.
  • The Mediator: Anusuya Sarabhai (sister of Mill Owner's Association president) urged Gandhi to intervene.
  • The Action: Gandhi calculated a 35% wage increase as fair. When owners didn't agree, he staged the first of his "fasts unto death." 🧘‍♂️
  • Outcome: After 3 days, owners agreed to the 35% hike.

C. Kheda Satyagraha (1918) — First Non-Cooperation 🌾

  • The Issue: Kheda was hit by famine and plague. Despite crops being ruined, British authorities increased taxes by 23%. According to the Revenue Code, if the yield was less than 1/4th, farmers were entitled to total remission.
  • The Leaders: Started by Mohanlal Pandya; later joined by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Gandhi.
  • The Action: Gandhi urged farmers not to pay the revenue (Non-Cooperation), despite land confiscations.
  • Outcome: The government secretly instructed officials to collect revenue only from those who could pay. Confiscated property was returned.

3. Learnings and Political Shift 📈

The success of these three movements led to:

  • Tool of Satyagraha: Established as the primary political instrument.
  • Mass Leadership: Gandhi bridged the gap between the Congress intelligentsia and the rural masses. 👨‍🌾👩‍🌾
  • New Direction: Shifted political mobilization from petitions to direct, non-violent mass action.

🎓 UPSC Exam Perspectives

📌 Prelims Pointers (High Yield)

  1. Chronology: Champaran (1917) →\rightarrow Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) →\rightarrow Kheda (1918). Mnemonic: C-A-K (Cake).
  2. Specific Labels:
    • Champaran = First Civil Disobedience.
    • Ahmedabad = First Hunger Strike.
    • Kheda = First Non-Cooperation.
  3. Personalities:
    • Rajkumar Shukla (Champaran).
    • Anusuya Sarabhai (Ahmedabad).
    • Sardar Patel and Mohanlal Pandya (Kheda).
  4. Tinkathia System: Refers to the 3/20 portion of land for indigo.
  5. Mahatma Title: Given by Tagore after Champaran.

📝 Mains Related (Analytical)

  1. Nature of Transition: Discuss how Gandhi's regional movements acted as a "bridge" between his experience in South Africa and the Pan-India mass movements (Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience).
  2. Social Base: Analyze how Gandhi expanded the social base of the Indian National Movement to include peasants (Champaran/Kheda) and the working class (Ahmedabad).
  3. Technique of Satyagraha: Evaluate the effectiveness of "Fast unto Death" as a political tool in the Ahmedabad strike.
  4. British Strategy: Why did the British allow the "withdrawal of cases" in Champaran and Kheda? (Hint: To avoid total mass alienation during World War I).

This detailed set of notes is based on Lecture 61: Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, and the Government of India Act 1919.

⚖️ The Rowlatt Act (The "Black Act")

📖 Background

  • Post-World War I, the British were wary of the rising extremist factions in the Indian national movement.
  • The Defence of India Act (wartime emergency law) was about to expire.
  • To maintain their grip, the British passed the Rowlatt Act in 1919 based on the recommendations of the **Sedition Committee (Rowlatt Commission).

🚨 Key Features: "No Dalil, No Vakil, No Appeal"

  • Arrest Without Warrant: Authorities could arrest Indians on mere suspicion of 'treason'.
  • Secrecy & No Legal Help: Suspects could be tried in secrecy without a lawyer (No Vakil).
  • No Right to Appeal: A special cell of three High Court judges was formed; no court could hear an appeal against their decision.
  • Suspension of Habeas Corpus: The very basis of civil liberty was suspended.

🚫 Indian Reaction

  • Indian members of the Imperial Legislative Council voted against it but were outvoted by the official majority.
  • Resignations in Protest: Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Madan Mohan Malaviya, and Mazhar Ul Haq resigned from the Council.

✊ The Rowlatt Satyagraha

🕊️ Gandhi’s First Pan-India Movement

  • Gandhiji called it the "Black Act" and launched the Rowlatt Satyagraha on April 6, 1919.
  • Method: Nationwide Hartal (strike), fasting, prayer, and civil disobedience against specific laws.
  • Satyagraha Sabha: Gandhi organized this to bring in younger members of the Home Rule Leagues and Pan-Islamists.

📉 Violence and Halt

  • Anti-British riots erupted in Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, and Ahmedabad.
  • In Punjab, the situation was explosive due to forced wartime recruitment. Sir Michael O’Dwyer (Lt. Governor) used aircraft strafing against protestors.
  • Gandhi’s Decision: Disappointed by the violence, Gandhiji halted the movement as he realized the masses were not yet ready for non-violent struggle.

🩸 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)

🗓️ The Events

  1. Arrest of Leaders: On April 9, Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal were arrested.
  2. April 10: Protests turned violent after police fired on people showing solidarity with their leaders.
  3. Baisakhi Day: A peaceful crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh to protest the arrests; many were villagers unaware of the Martial Law and prohibitory orders.
  4. The Massacre: Brigadier-General Dyer blocked the only exit and ordered troops to fire until ammunition was exhausted. Over 1,000 innocent people were killed.

🏷️ The Fallout: Renunciation of Titles

  • Rabindranath Tagore renounced his Knighthood.
  • Mahatma Gandhi gave up his Kaiser-i-Hind title.
  • Gandhi declared that cooperation with this "Satanic Regime" was now impossible.

🔍 The Hunter Committee of Inquiry (1919-20)

Ordered by Edwin Montagu (Secretary of State) to investigate the disturbances in Bombay, Delhi, and Punjab.

👥 Members

  • Chairman: Lord William Hunter.
  • Indian Members: Sir Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad, Pandit Jagat Narayan, and Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Khan.

📑 Findings & "White Washing"

  • The committee condemned Dyer’s actions and noted he gave no warning.
  • However, it claimed there was no conspiracy to overthrow British rule in Punjab.
  • Hollowness: No penal or disciplinary action was taken against Dyer. The government had already passed the Indemnity Act (the "White Washing Bill") to protect its officers.
  • Punishment for Dyer: He was simply relieved of command, recalled to England, and allowed to draw half-pay and a pension.

📜 Government of India Act 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms)

🏛️ Central Level: Bicameralism

  • Bicameral Legislature: Introduced a lower house (Legislative Assembly - 145 members) and an upper house (Council of State - 60 members).
  • Communal Representation: Extended to Sikhs, Europeans, and Anglo-Indians.
  • Viceroy’s Power: No bill could pass without the Viceroy's assent. He could also enact a bill without the legislature's consent.

🗳️ Provincial Level: Dyarchy

Dyarchy (dual set of governments) was introduced:

  1. Reserved Subjects: (Police, Justice, Land Revenue, Irrigation). Controlled by the Governor and his Executive Council (not accountable to the legislature).
  2. Transferred Subjects: (Local Self-Govt, Health, Education, Agriculture). Administered by the Governor with the aid of Indian Ministers (accountable to the legislature).

📊 Other Provisions

  • Limited Franchise: Based on property; only those paying ₹3000 in tax could vote. Only 5.3 million out of 241 million had the right to vote (< 5%).
  • Public Service Commission: Provided for its establishment for the first time.
  • Statutory Commission: A provision to set up a commission after 10 years to study the Act's working (led to the Simon Commission of 1927).

🏁 Evaluation of the 1919 Act

  • Merits: Introduced the concept of "Responsible Government" and increased Indian participation in administration.
  • Limitations:
    • Impractical Dyarchy: Subjects were illogically divided (e.g., Agriculture was Transferred, but Irrigation was Reserved).
    • Lack of Ministerial Power: Ministers had no control over the Civil Service.
    • Limited Franchise: Failed to include the common man or women.

🎓 UPSC Exam Perspectives

📌 Prelims Pointers:

  1. Rowlatt Act: Known as the "Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919."
  2. Hunter Committee Indians: Chimanlal Setalvad, Jagat Narayan, Sultan Ahmad Khan (High priority).
  3. Indemnity Act: Referred to as the "White Washing Bill."
  4. 1919 Act: First time Bicameralism and Direct Elections (though limited) were introduced at the center.
  5. Dyarchy: Introduced in the Provinces, not at the Center (that happened in 1935).

📝 Mains Related:

  1. Analytical: "The Rowlatt Act was a 'grave error in judgement' that transformed Gandhi into a pan-India leader." Discuss.
  2. Constitutional: Evaluate the working of Dyarchy under the GOI Act 1919. Why was it considered an "impractical scheme"?
  3. Impact: How did the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre change the moral high ground of the British Empire in India and pave the way for the Non-Cooperation Movement?
  4. Historiography: Use the quote by Lord Curzon—the British contemplated a 500-year intervening period before "ultimate self-government"—to explain the true intent of British reforms..

🇮🇳 Non-Cooperation & Khilafat Movement (1919–1922) 🕊️

During this period, the British faced an unprecedented upsurge of mass resistance. While the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements emerged from separate issues, they adopted a common action plan: Non-violent Non-cooperation.

1. The Background: Why the Surge? 🌍🏠

International Developments:

  • Post-War Betrayal: Allied nations (Britain) broke promises made during WWI.
  • Ill-treatment of Defeated Powers: Harsh terms imposed on Turkey (Treaty of Sevres).
  • Global Nationalism: Rise of nationalist sentiments in other countries inspired Indians.

Domestic Developments:

  • Economic Hardship: High inflation and taxes post-WWI. 💸
  • Half-hearted Reforms: Disappointment with the Government of India Act 1919.
  • The Rowlatt Act & Jallianwala Bagh: The brutal massacre in Amritsar destroyed the remaining faith in British justice. 🩸

2. The Khilafat Issue: The Religious Spark 🕌

  • The Cause: Muslims globally regarded the Sultan of Turkey as the Khalifa (Caliph/Spiritual Head). Post-WWI, the Ottoman Empire was dismembered and the Khalifa deposed.
  • Leaders: Founded by the Ali Brothers (Shoukat Ali and Mohammad Ali) along with Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Ajit Khan, and Hasrat Mohani.
  • Objective: To force the British to change their attitude toward Turkey and restore the Khalifa's power.
  • Gandhi’s Role: He was elected President of the All India Khilafat Conference in November 1919. He saw this as a "golden opportunity" to cement Hindu-Muslim unity. 🤝

3. The Strategy of Non-Cooperation (NCM) 🚫

The movement was formally launched on August 1st, 1920.

Four Stages of Non-Cooperation:

  1. Resignation of titles and honorary posts.
  2. Resignation from civil services.
  3. Resignation from Police and Army services.
  4. Non-payment of taxes.

Specific Programs:

  • Boycott of schools, colleges, and law courts. 🎓⚖️
  • Public burning of foreign clothes and promotion of Khadi. 👔
  • Boycott of Legislative Councils.

4. The Nagpur Session (1920): A Turning Point 🏛️

Presided by: C. Vijayaraghavachariar.

  • New Goal: Attainment of Swaraj through peaceful and legitimate means (instead of constitutional means).
  • Organizational Overhaul:
    • Formation of a Congress Working Committee (CWC) of 15 members to lead the party daily.
    • Provincial Committees organized on a Linguistic basis.
    • Ward committees organized to reach villages.
    • Entry fee reduced to 4 annas to allow the poor to join. 🪙

5. Spread and Participation of the Masses 📈

  • Students: Thousands left government schools to join new national institutions like Jamia Millia Islamia, Gujarat Vidyapeeth, Kashi Vidyapeeth, and Bihar Vidyapeeth.
  • Lawyers: Leaders like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Rajendra Prasad, and Sardar Patel gave up their lucrative practices.
  • Women: Participated in large numbers, picketing liquor shops and donating ornaments to the Tilak Fund. 💍
  • Economic Impact: Imports of foreign cloth fell by half. Indian merchants supported the boycott.

🛑 The Halt: Chauri Chaura (Feb 5, 1922)

  • The Incident: In Chauri Chaura (UP), police fired on a protesting crowd. An angry mob retaliated by burning the police station, killing 22 policemen. 🔥
  • Gandhi's Reaction: He immediately withdrew the movement, believing the masses were not yet ready for a non-violent struggle.
  • The Bardoli Resolution: The CWC met at Bardoli to formalize the stop and urged everyone to take up "Constructive Work."

⚖️ Evaluation: Success or Failure?

Positives ✅:

  • First Mass Movement: Demonstrated that lakhs of Indians could protest peacefully.
  • National Unity: Achieved high levels of Hindu-Muslim harmony.
  • Fearless India: People lost their fear of the government and flocked to jails willingly. ⛓️
  • Gandhi as Leader: Established Gandhi as the undisputed populist leader.

Negatives/Criticisms ❌:

  • Khilafat Linkage: Critics (like Dr. Ambedkar and Annie Besant) argued that linking a religious issue (Khilafat) to politics encouraged communalism later on.
  • Moplah Massacre: In Malabar, the movement turned into a violent communal clash.
  • Strategic Disappointment: Leaders like Nehru, C.R. Das, and Subhas Bose were demoralized by the sudden withdrawal when the movement was at its peak.

🎓 UPSC Special Section

📌 Prelims Pointers:

  1. NCM Launch Date: Aug 1, 1920 (Coincided with the death of B.G. Tilak).
  2. Educational Institutions: Match Jamia Millia (1920), Kashi Vidyapeeth (1921), and Gujarat Vidyapeeth (1920) with their years.
  3. Nagpur Session 1920: Known for linguistic reorganization of Congress and the 4-anna membership fee.
  4. Leaders who left Congress: Jinnah, Annie Besant, and G.S. Kharparde (because they opposed extra-constitutional struggle).
  5. Turkey's End: The Khilafat issue died when Mustafa Kamal Pasha made Turkey a secular state and abolished the Caliphate in 1924.

📝 Mains Related:

  1. Analyze the link: "Gandhi’s decision to support the Khilafat cause was a tactical masterstroke but a strategic risk." Discuss.
  2. The Ethics of Withdrawal: Evaluate Gandhi's rationale for stopping the movement after Chauri Chaura. Was it a "political failure" or a "moral victory"?
  3. Organizational Shift: Discuss how the GOI Act 1919 and the subsequent Non-Cooperation Movement transformed the Congress from an "elite club" to a "mass party."
  4. Communalism: Discuss the views of Dr. Ambedkar and Annie Besant on the impact of the Khilafat movement on the communal fabric of India.
Built with LogoFlowershow