phase 2 of the nationalism (1922-1929)

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⏳ Table of Contents: The Transitional Years (1922–1929)

🏚️ Phase I: The Great Withdrawal & The Rift (1922–1923)

• 1922 (Feb): 🛑 Chauri Chaura Incident – Gandhi withdraws the Non-Cooperation Movement; political shock and vacuum follow.
• 1922 (Dec): ⚔️ Gaya Congress Session – The big debate: "Pro-Changers" (want to enter councils) vs. "No-Changers" (want to stick to constructive work).
• 1923 (Jan): 🏛️ Formation of the Swaraj Party – C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru split to "wreck the reforms from within" the legislative councils.
• 1923 (Sept): 🤝 Delhi Special Session – Maulana Azad brokers a peace; Swarajists stay inside Congress as a wing.

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🕊️ Phase II: Reconciliation & Council Politics (1924–1926)

• 1924 (Dec): 🕯️ Belgaum Congress Session – Mahatma Gandhi’s only presidency. He reunites the factions and focuses on Hindu-Muslim unity and the "Spinning Wheel."
• 1925 (Jun): 🥀 Death of C.R. Das – A massive blow to the Swaraj Party; communalism begins to rise in Indian politics.
• 1925 (Dec): 👩‍💼 Kanpur Congress Session – Sarojini Naidu becomes the first Indian woman president. Lord Birkenhead first issues his challenge to Indians to draft a constitution.
• 1926: 📉 Decline of the Swarajists – Internal rifts and "Responsive Cooperation" lead to a loss of momentum in the councils.

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🕵️‍♂️ Phase III: The Simon Provocation (1927–1928)

• 1927 (Nov): 🇬🇧 Appointment of Simon Commission – The British appoint an "All-White" commission two years early. This "insult" reunites all Indian parties.
• 1927 (Dec): 🚩 Madras Congress Session – Dr. M.A. Ansari presides. Congress officially decides to boycott the Simon Commission at every stage.
• 1928 (Feb): 🚫 Arrival of Simon – "Simon Go Back!" protests sweep India; Lala Lajpat Rai is fatally injured in a lathi charge.

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📜 Phase IV: The Constitutional Response (1928)

• 1928 (Feb): 🤝 All Parties Conference – Indians meet to answer Birkenhead’s challenge.
• 1928 (Aug): 🖋️ The Nehru Report – Motilal Nehru’s committee submits the first draft of an Indian Constitution.
  • Key Demands: Dominion Status, Joint Electorates, Universal Franchise.
• 1928 (Dec): ⏱️ Calcutta Congress Session – Motilal Nehru presides. A rift emerges between the "Old Guard" (Dominion Status) and "Young Radicals" (Poorna Swaraj).
  • The Compromise: British are given one year to grant Dominion Status.

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🔱 Phase V: The "Parting of Ways" & The Leap (1929)

• 1929 (Mar): 💔 Jinnah’s Fourteen Points – Jinnah formally rejects the Nehru Report; the Muslim League separates its path from the Congress.
• 1929 (Mar): ⚖️ Meerut Conspiracy Case – The British arrest 31 labor leaders (communists), radicalizing the working class.
• 1929 (Oct): 🗣️ The Irwin Declaration – Viceroy Irwin offers a vague promise of a "Round Table Conference" to discuss Dominion Status.
• 1929 (Nov): 📝 The Delhi Manifesto – National leaders set conditions for the RTC; Irwin later rejects them in December.
• 1929 (Dec): 🏁 The Lahore Congress Session – Presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru.
  • The Resolution: The 1-year deadline expires. Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) is declared the official goal of India.
  • Symbolic Act: On midnight of Dec 31, the Tricolour is hoisted on the banks of the Ravi.

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💡 Summary for your Obsidian Garden:

• 1922–1927: The years of "Waiting and Constructive Work."
• 1927–1929: The years of "Provocation and Unity."
• 1929 End: The beginning of the Mass Struggle Era again.

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🏛️ The Swarajist Movement & The "No-Changer" Debate (1922–1929)

1. The Background: A Political Vacuum 🌫️

• The Context: After the sudden withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) following the Chauri Chaura incident and Mahatma Gandhi’s arrest in March 1922, the national movement entered a passive phase.
• The Dilemma: There was widespread disintegration and demoralization among leaders. A debate erupted: How should the struggle continue during this transition period?
• The Ideological Split: This led to the emergence of two distinct groups within the INC:
  1. The Swarajists (Pro-Changers) 🔄
  2. The No-Changers 🛑

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2. The Great Divide: Two Approaches to Resistance ⚔️

A. The Swarajists (Pro-Changers) 🗳️

• Leaders: C.R. Das (President), Motilal Nehru (Secretary), and Ajmal Khan.
• Philosophy: They believed in entering the Legislative Councils established by the 1919 Act.
• Objectives:
  • "End or Mend" the councils: Use them to highlight the flaws of British governance.
  • Obstructionist Policy: Adopt a policy of "uniform, continuous, and consistent obstruction" to make governance through councils impossible.
  • Exposing the British: Use the council floor as a platform for political agitation and anti-imperialist propaganda.
  • Filling the Void: Prevent "undesirable elements" (British loyalists) from filling the seats and claiming legitimacy.

B. The No-Changers 🧶

• Leaders: Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C. Rajagopalachari, and M.A. Ansari.
• Philosophy: They opposed council entry, calling it a violation of the non-cooperation principle.
• Focus:
  • Constructive Work: Popularizing Khadi, spinning the Charkha, and establishing national schools.
  • Social Reform: Working toward Hindu-Muslim unity and the removal of untouchability.
  • Preparation: They argued this work would create the "backbone" for the next phase of Civil Disobedience.

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3. Formation of the Swarajya Party (1922–1923) 📝

• The Gaya Session (1922): Presided over by C.R. Das. He moved a proposal for council entry, which was defeated by the No-Changers.
• Resignation: Following the defeat, C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from their INC offices.
• The Party: They announced the formation of the Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party (simply the Swarajist Party) within the Congress.
• Reconciliation (1923): To avoid a repeat of the 1907 Surat Split, a compromise was reached at a special session in Delhi (Sept 1923). Swarajists were allowed to contest elections as a separate group within the Congress. 🤝

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4. Swarajist Performance and Council Activities 🏛️

• 1923 Elections: Swarajists won 42 out of 141 elected seats in the Central Legislative Assembly and a clear majority in the Central Provinces.
• Achievements:
  • Vithalbhai Patel: Elected as the Speaker (President) of the Central Legislative Assembly in 1925—a major symbolic victory. 🎙️
  • Defeating the Public Safety Bill (1928): They successfully blocked this bill, which aimed to deport foreigners and curb socialist/communist activities.
  • Exposing the Raj: Their powerful speeches and adjournment motions exposed the "hollowness" of the Montagu-Chelmsford (Montford) reforms.

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5. The Decline of the Swarajist Party 📉

Several factors led to the weakening of the party by 1926:

• Death of C.R. Das (1925): The party lost its most charismatic leader.
• Communal Politics: Rising tensions between Hindus and Muslims alienated the party from its supporters.
• Internal Split (Responsivists vs. Non-Responsivists):
  • Responsivists: (Lala Lajpat Rai, M.M. Malaviya, N.C. Kelkar) wanted to cooperate with the government and hold office. 🏢
  • Non-Responsivists: (Motilal Nehru) eventually withdrew from the legislatures in 1926.
• Lure of Office: Many members succumbed to the perks and privileges of power, weakening the original "obstructionist" spirit.

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6. Constructive Work by No-Changers: The Silent Revolution 🛠️

While Swarajists were in councils, No-Changers worked at the grassroots:

• Ashrams: Became centers for training political workers among tribals and lower castes.
• Education: National schools trained students in a non-colonial ideological framework.
• Khadi: Popularized as a symbol of self-reliance, though it was costlier than mill cloth. 🧺
• Limitation: The reach was largely confined to urban lower-middle classes and rich peasants; it often lacked focus on the economic grievances of the landless.

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🎓 UPSC Special Section

📌 Prelims Pointers (Quick Facts)

• Party Name: Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party (Formed Jan 1, 1923).
• Gaya Session 1922: Where the council entry proposal was first defeated.
• Belgaum Session 1924: The only session presided over by Gandhi; here, Swarajists were formally accepted as an integral part of the INC.
• Vithalbhai Patel: First Indian Speaker of the Central Legislative Assembly (1925).
• Public Safety Bill 1928: Opposed by Motilal Nehru and Lala Lajpat Rai; aimed at curbing Communists/Socialists.
• Responsivists: Group within Swarajists who favored holding office (e.g., N.C. Kelkar).

📝 Mains Related (Analytical Perspectives)

• The Utility of Swarajists: "The Swarajists filled the temporary political void and kept the morale of the masses high during a period of passivity." Discuss their role in the struggle.
• Swarajist vs. No-Changer: Evaluate how both groups, despite different methods, complemented each other (Constructive work providing the base, Council work providing the political noise).
• Causes of Decline: Analyze how the "lure of office" and the "rise of communalism" led to the downfall of the Swarajist experiment.
• Gandhi’s Pragmatism: Discuss why Gandhi, initially an opponent of council entry, eventually reconciled with the Swarajists in 1924.

📜 Lecture 64: New Trends in National Movements

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🌟 1. Emergence of New Forces (The 1920s)

After the sudden withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement, five major new trends emerged in the Indian freedom struggle:

1. 🚩 Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas
2. 🎓 Activism of Indian Youth (Students' Leagues)
3. 🚜 Peasants' Agitations < peasant uprising> **mopla 1920, kisan sabha , Eka movement.
4. 🛠️ Growth of Trade Unionism
   1. ⚖️ Caste Movements ( **1920s AMBEDKER > BHS (Beshver hithkarni sabha),(MS Mahar sabha),( KT kaluram temple movement 1930), (SRM self respect movement) created by EV ramaswami nayakar (peryer)1925.

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CAPITALISM , SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISUM

Central Focus: The relationship between Government and Economy through three major ideologies.

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1. Capitalism (Classical Liberalism)

• Influencer: Adam Smith (Scottish Philosopher).
• Foundational Text: The Wealth of Nations (1776).
• Core Principles:
  • Laissez-faire: "Leave it alone"—minimal government interference.
  • Invisible Hand: The market regulates itself through the "invisible hand."
  • Market Drivers: Economy is determined by the laws of Demand and Supply.
• Major Problem: Leads to Relative Inequality between different sections of society.
• SARDAR BALAVBAI PATIL was not a pure capitalist but compare to Nehru , he was more inclined towards a practical, pro-market (**capitalist-leaning ) approach.
• M.K Gandhi: cannot be classified as strictly as capitalist or socialist but he followed a middle path, combining > **moral socialism ( without violence)

• **limited acceptance of private property with responsibility ( trusteeship)

• (**ideolog):: Sarvodaya +Trusteeship +village economy)

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2. Socialism (Nehruvian/Democratic Socialism)

• Influencer: Rooted in French Philosophy (specifically Rousseau).
• Core Principles:
  • Critiques the capitalist system for its inequalities.
  • Advocates for Certain Interference of Government into the economy to ensure fairness.
• Indian Context (Nehruvian Socialism):
  • Classified as Democratic Socialism.
  • Twin Angles:
    1. Distributive Status: Focuses on bridging the gap between the rich and the poor.
    2. Mixed Economy: A system where certain key areas are under Government Monopoly, while other sectors are Open for both government and private players.

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3. Communism (Marxist/Indian Context)

• Influencers: Karl Marx; associated with Subhas Chandra Bose in the Indian movement.
• Definition: Viewed as an "extreme version of Socialism."
• Core Principles:
  • Total Control: The government has complete control over the entire economy.
  • Class Structure: Defined by the struggle between the Proletariat (worker class) and the Bourgeoisie (capitalist class).
  • Method: A revolution by the Proletariat to capture the government, leading to the Dictatorship of the Proletariat.
• Objectives: To "Annihilate" anything that causes inequality in the economy, specifically:
  1. Religion
  2. Capitalism

🚩 1. Marxist and Socialist Ideas

• Inspiration: The ideas of Marx and Socialist thinkers led to the rise of communist and socialist groups.
• Congress Left Wing: Represented by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose.
• Younger Nationalists:
  • Critical of both Swarajists and No-Changers.
  • First to raise the slogan for Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence).
  • Stressed combining nationalism and anti-imperialism with social justice.

🏛️ Major Communist Milestones

• **1912 : after Russian Revolution
• 1920: Communist Party of India (CPI) formed in Tashkent by M.N. Roy, Abani Mukherjee, and others.
• 1924: Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case: British government jailed leaders like S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, Shaukat Usmani, and Nalini Gupta.
  • Charges: Conspiring to deprive the King-Emperor of his sovereignty via a violent revolution. ⛓️
• 1925: Indian Conference at Kanpur formalized the foundation of the CPI on Indian soil.
• 1929: Meerut Conspiracy Case: A controversial trial where 31 labor leaders were arrested. 27 were convicted, including British communists Philip Spratt and Benjamin Francis Bradley.

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🛠️ 2. Growth of Trade Unionism

• First Workers' Association: Bombay Mill-Hands Association (1890) founded by N.M. Lokhande. (FACTORY ACT 1881 )
• First Registered Union: Madras Labour Union (1918) founded by B.P. Wadia.
• AITUC (1920): All India Trade Union Congress.
  • Founding: Oct 31, 1920, at Empire Theatre, Bombay.
  • First President: Lala Lajpat Rai. 🦁
  • First General Secretary: Deewan Chaman Lal.
  • Political Support: Motilal Nehru, M.A. Jinnah, Annie Besant, C.R. Das, and later Nehru and Bose.
  • Radicalism: At the 1921 Jharia session, AITUC adopted a Purna Swaraj resolution (8 years before the Congress).
• Strikes: Over 1,000 strikes recorded between 1920 and 1924.
• Legislation: Trade Union Act (1926) provided rules for regulation and monitoring.
  • Growth: 28 unions in 1926 ➡️ 2,766 unions (1.66 million members) in 1947.

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🚩 Revolutionary Activity in the 1920s: The Bold Revival 🧨

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⚡ 1. The Context: Why did it revive?

After Gandhi suddenly suspended the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) in 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, the youth felt betrayed. 😤

• Alternative Paths: They weren't interested in the parliamentary work of the Swarajists or the quiet constructive work of the No-Changers.
• Influences: The Russian Revolution (1917) and the rise of the Soviet Republic inspired them to look toward Socialism and Marxism. ☭
• Two Strands:
  1. Hindustan (North India): Punjab, U.P., and Bihar.
  2. Bengal: Chittagong and Calcutta.

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**Revolutionary Activities in punjab-united provinces-Bihar:

🏗️ 2. The HRA (Hindustan Republican Association)

Founded in October 1924 in Kanpur.

• Founders: Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, and Sachindra Nath Sanyal. 🤝
• The Manifesto: Titled "The Revolutionary". It aimed for a "Federal Republic of the United States of India" with universal suffrage. 📜
• The Big Action: Kakori Train Robbery (Aug 9, 1925) 🚂💰
  • Goal: Loot government money to fund HRA activities.
  • What happened: They stopped the Number 8 Down Train at Kakori (near Lucknow) and looted ₹8000.
  • The Price: The British launched a massive manhunt.
  • Martyrs: Ramprasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Roshan Singh, and Rajendra Lahiri were hanged in 1927. 🕊️

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🚩 3. The HSRA (Hindustan Socialist Republican Association)

In September 1928, the HRA was reorganized at Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi.

• The Shift: Under the influence of Bhagat Singh, the word "Socialist" was added. 🛠️
• Ideology: Shifted from "Individual Heroic Action" to "Mass Politics." They wanted to establish the "Dictatorship of the Proletariat." ✊
• Key Manifesto: "Philosophy of the Bomb" by Bhagwati Charan Vohra. 💣

🔫 Major HSRA Actions:

1. Saunders’ Assassination (Dec 17, 1928):
   • Lala Lajpat Rai died after a brutal lathi charge during anti-Simon Commission protests.
   • Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Azad killed Assistant Superintendent John P. Saunders in Lahore to avenge "Lalaji." 🏹
2. Assembly Bombing (April 8, 1929):
   • Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw non-lethal smoke bombs into the Central Legislative Assembly. 💨
   • Rationale: To protest the Public Safety Bill and Trade Disputes Bill.
   • Slogan: "To Make the Deaf Hear." They didn't run away; they courted arrest to use the court as a platform for propaganda. 📢

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🧠 4. The Legend of Bhagat Singh

Bhagat Singh was not just a man of action but a profound thinker. ✍️

• Book: To Young Political worker

• Atheism: Wrote the essay "Why I Am an Atheist" while in prison. He argued that God was a creation of man’s imagination used to provide courage in distress. 🚫👁️

• Marxism: On the day of his execution, he was reading Clara Zetkin's Reminiscences of Lenin. 📚

• Martyrdom: Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were hanged on March 23, 1931 (Shaheed Diwas). 🕯️

• Chandra Shekhar Azad: The "un-catchable" leader shot himself in Alfred Park (Feb 1931), keeping his vow never to be caught alive. 🌳🔫

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⚓ 5. Bengal Strand: The Chittagong Armory Raid

Led by Surya Sen (affectionately known as Masterda).

• The Raid (April 18, 1930): 65 revolutionaries captured the police armory, cut off phone/telegraph lines, and disrupted trains. ⚔️
• Provisional Govt: Sen hoisted the National Flag and proclaimed a Provisional Revolutionary Government. 🇮🇳
• The Battle: They fought a legendary battle at Jalalabad Hills against several thousand British troops. 🏔️
• The End: Surya Sen was captured in 1933 and hanged in January 1934. 🥀

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👩‍🎤 6. Women in the Revolution

The 1920s-30s saw unprecedented participation by young women:

• Pritilata Waddedar: Led the attack on the Pahartali European Club (which had a sign: "Dogs and Indians not allowed"). She consumed cyanide to avoid arrest. 🧪
• Kalpana Dutta: Arrested and sentenced to life for her role in the Chittagong raid.
• Bina Das: Fired shots at the Governor while receiving her degree at the Convocation. 🎓🔫
• Santi Ghosh & Suniti Chandheri: Young schoolgirls who assassinated a District Magistrate. 👧🔥

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📉 7. Analysis: Success and Drawbacks

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⚖️ 7. Other Significant Movements

🎓 Youth & Peasants

• Youth: All Bengal Students' Conference (1928) presided over by Nehru.
• Peasants: Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) led by Vallabhbhai Patel; uprisings in Andhra (Rampa), Rajasthan, and UP.

🏛️ Caste Movements

• Justice Party (Madras)
• Self-Respect Movement (1925) (Periyar) ✊
• Satyashodhak activists (Maharashtra)
• Mahars under Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (Maharashtra)
• SNDP Movement (Kerala - Ezhavas)
• Unionist Party (Punjab - Fazl-i-Hussain)

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📉 8. Significance & Drawbacks

Significance ✅

• Emphasis on group action vs individual heroism.
• Secular/Religion-neutral actions.
• Massive participation of young women.
• Shift toward Mass Politics (Naujawan Bharat Sabha, 1926).

Drawbacks ❌

• Retained some conservative elements.
• Failed to evolve broad socio-economic goals.
• Lack of Coordination among regional groups. 🧩
• Often aloof from mainstream national politics.